Coral Reefs: A Reef Resilience Toolkit Module

Ecosystem-Based Management

The problems associated with the decline of diversity and natural resources in the oceans are now well recognized, and there have been increasing calls for new approaches to management. Ecosystem-based management (EBM) is a developing field that is being increasingly well defined in practice. Basic principles identified by scientists and policymakers include working at ecologically relevant scales, working across multiple sectors or management objectives, and integrating humans as part of the seascape.

The reef ecosystem extends beyond its physical boundary to include the neighboring habitats with which it interacts, especially seagrass beds, back-reef lagoons, and mangroves which provide important fish nurseries. All these linked habitats must be considered and managed as parts of a single functional unit. Photos © S. Wear/TNC

Ecosystem-based management is an integrated approach to management that considers the entire ecosystem, including humans. The goal of EBM is to maintain an ecosystem in a healthy, productive and resilient condition, so that it can provide the services humans want and need. Current approaches usually focus on a single species, sector, activity or concern; but EBM considers the cumulative impacts of different sectors. Recently, experts have worked to provide a clear definition of EBM:

EBM emphasizes the protection of ecosystem structure, functioning and key processes; is place-based in focusing on a specific ecosystem and the range of activities affecting it; explicitly accounts for the interconnectedness among systems, such as between air, land and sea; and integrates ecological, social, economic and institutional perspectives, recognizing their strong interdependences. COMPASS Scientific Consensus Statement

Ecosystem-based management includes the following elements:1

1. Sustainability. Ecosystem-based management does not focus primarily on “deliverables,” but rather regards intergenerational sustainability as a precondition.
2. Goals. Ecosystem-based management establishes measurable goals that specify future processes and outcomes necessary for sustainability.
3. Sound ecological models and understanding. Ecosystem-based management relies on research performed at all levels of ecological organization.
4. Complexity and connectedness. Ecosystem-based management recognizes that biological diversity and structural complexity strengthen ecosystems against disturbance, and supply the genetic resources necessary to adapt to long-term change.
5. The dynamic character of ecosystems. Recognizing that change and evolution are inherent in ecosystem sustainability, ecosystem-based management avoids attempts to “freeze” ecosystems in a particular state or configuration.
6. Context and scale. Ecosystem processes operate over a wide range of spatial and temporal scales, and their behavior at any given location is greatly affected by surrounding systems. Thus, there is no single appropriate scale or time frame for management.
7. Humans as ecosystem components. Ecosystem-based management values the active role of humans in achieving sustainable management goals.
8. Adaptability and accountability. Ecosystem-based management acknowledges that current knowledge and paradigms of ecosystem function are provisional, incomplete and subject to change. Management approaches must be viewed as hypotheses to be tested by research and monitoring programs.

Marine reserves can play a key role in achieving the broader goals of EBM in many regions of the world. However, reserves are not synonymous with EBM and will not be entirely sufficient to achieve all EBM goals. At larger scales, spatial management tools will need to include multiple layers of areas that cover a range of objectives, from no-take marine reserves to areas in which most or all activities are permitted. One key advantage of using MPAs within the context of EBM (rather than implementing MPAs in isolation) is to deliberately plan for spatial configurations that minimize negative impacts to particularly sensitive species, habitats, or ecosystems, and minimize externalities that could reduce the effectiveness of the MPA. MPAs will almost always be a necessary component of EBM (the exception being EBM efforts occurring at very small spatial scales). However, MPAs alone will rarely, if ever, be sufficient to achieve the range of goals inherent in comprehensive ecosystem-based management.2

EBM has rarely been implemented in the field but a few exciting new projects are using EBM in coral reef habitats (e.g., Raja Ampat, Indonesia). Typically, MPAs are managed as individual entities. However, as the concept of multiple objective management gains momentum, some MPAs are being managed within MPA networks. Sometimes these networks are managed with the concepts of Integrated Coastal Management or Area Based Management in mind. These methods take multiple factors into account and are a great start to managing with an ecosystem-based approach. Zoning of MPAs is another step towards EBM with the ultimate goal being MPAs that are integrated into more comprehensive management frameworks.

Resources

COMPASS EBM Resources

Ecosystem Based Management Tools Network